Conceptualization: B.A.B., L.J., M.M., L.Y., E.K.N. and A.T.K.-B.; data curation: B.A.B., L.Y., E.K.N. and A.T.K.-B.; formal analysis: B.A.B., L.J., M.M., LY., E.K.N. and A.T.K.-B. funding acquisition: L.J. and M.M.; investigation: B.A.B., L.J., M.M., L.Y., E.K.N. and A.T.K.-B. methodology: B.A.B., L.J., M.M., L.Y., E.K.N. and A.T.K.-B.; project administration: L.J. and M.M.; resources: L.J. and M.M.; software: B.A.B.; validation: B.A.B.; visualization: B.A.B.; writing—original draft: B.A.B.; writing—review and editing: B.A.B., L.J., M.M., LY., E.K.N., A.T.K.-B., M.J., J.Z., Y.L., Y.Z. and A.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. This research was jointly funded by the Open Research Program of the International Research Center of Big Data for Sustainable Development Goals (Grant No. CBAS2023ORP05), the Key Collaborative Research Program of the Alliance of International Science Organizations (Grant No. ANSO-CR-KP-2022-02), Natural Science Foundation of China project (Grant No. 41661144022), the Chinese Academy of Sciences President’s International Fellowship Initiative (Grant No. 2020VTA0001), the MOST High Level Foreign Expert Program (Grant No. G2022055010L), the Chinese Government Scholarship Council (CSC) (Grant No. 2018SLJ023247), the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD) Climate Research for Alumni and Postdocs in Africa, 2021 (Grant No. 57560641) and Tsinghua University Initiative Scientific Research Program (Grant No. 20223080017).