We thank Zhi-Xi Tian for field assistance, Zhen-Dong Fang and the staff of Shangri-La Garden for logistical support, participants at a symposium ‘Evolution of floral traits’ who kindly provided comments on this work presented by the first author during the International Botanical Congress in Shenzhen, China, and Sarah Corbet, Jeffrey Karron, James Thomson, Renate A. Wesselingh and an anonymous reviewer for valuable suggestions on improving this manuscript. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation of China (grant nos. 31730012, U1402267) to S.-Q.H., National Postdoctoral Program for Innovative Talents (grant no. BX201600059) and China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (grant no. 2017M610482) to Z.-Y.T.